Theory Of Orientalism And Disneys Aladdin Film Studies Essay

Theory Of Orientalism And Disneys Aladdin Film Studies Essay Using the concepts and theory of Orientalism from the lecture topic race and whiteness this essay will analyse the 1992 Disney film Aladdin. This essay will use the theory of Orientalism to analyse how Western culture depicts a constructed reality open the Eastern oriental body in order to promote an inferior East and a powerful West. This essay will first discuss what the concept and theory of Orientalism is before giving a brief synopsis of the movie Aladdin. This essay will then analysis the film Aladdin in relation to the constructed stereotypes that surround the oriental figure such as Western concepts of Eastern ideologies, physical appearance and the sexualising of the oriental figure. The concept of Orientalism can be described as the Wests objectifying and stereotyping of the East. What this means is Orientalism believes that western culture creates an identification of Eastern culture by assigning the East distinctive features and characteristics. These features and characteristics are assigned negative connotations, which are repeated through sources such as media until these negative connotations become the normalised way of seeing. Said suggests the stereotyping of Oriental representations functions to reduce the East to the status of inferior other of the West (Said, as cited in Pugliese, 2008, p.207). This essay uses the theory of Orientalism to analyse the film Aladdin and to deconstruct the Western themes of Orientalism imposed upon the Eastern other. The 1992 Disney film Aladdin is set in the ambiguous Middle Eastern city of Agribah. According to the Disneys website, the film follows the street-smart young thief protagonist Aladdin, as he pursues the beautiful Princess Jasmine, a liberated young lady who seeks to escape her present lifestyle. This plot is forwarded when the evil vizier, Jafar attempts to gain possession of a magical lamp in an attempt to rise to power, and decides he needs Aladdin a diamond in the rough (Disney, n.d.). We are able to see, even in the synopsis how Western media attempt to impose ideas upon Eastern figures. The Western protagonists are described as street-smart and beautiful and liberated, where as the Middle Eastern character of Jafar is described as evil. Western culture constructs and ideology of Eastern culture and beliefs and imposes these constructed ideas onto Eastern culture. From the beginning of the film there is an attempt at displaying the separation of ideologies between Eastern and Western cultures. With the people of the Middle Eastern city of Agrabah described as those who will cut off your ear if they dont like your face (Clements Musker, 1992). This description of the Eastern figure immediately imposes the idea of a barbaric individual and one other from normal society. It attempts to impose the idea that Eastern individuals carry a lack of morals and ethics. This is not the only imposed ideas on Eastern individuals, as later displayed in scenes with the antagonist characters Jafar and Gazeem. As Gazeem and Jafar attempt to enter Cave of Wonders the Western construction of the Eastern lack of morals is displayed. As Jafar asks Gazeem for the key to the cave Gazeem quips that he had to slit a few throats to get it (Clements Musker, 1992). This comment goes unrecognised by Jafar, and attempts to convey the Eastern individuals lack of compassion towards murder, and attempts to dehumanise the two Eastern characters. The Eastern character Gazeem then attempts to enter the Cave of Wonders, before moments later being engulfed by the mouth of the cave. The film has no sympathy for the Eastern villain and his death is shrugged off by the master villain Jafar stating Gazeem was obviously less than worthy (Clements Musker, 1992). The Western ideology is input through the films protagonist Aladdin. Aladdin encompasses the Western dream in his rags to riches story. Aladdin believes that he can one day make something of himself and be something of importance, an ideology which is seen as a goal in many Western societies. Throughout the film Aladdin must learn to be himself, and discovers the value of truth and honestly. Aladdins ideology of a life where he can be treated as an equal contrasts Jafars Eastern ideology that he can rise to power, and posses dominant control (Disney, n.d.). Jafars attempt at a rise to power'(Disney, n.d.) is symbolic of the Westerns fear of Eastern control, and inevitably Jafar/East must be stopped. In order to make the removal of the Eastern oriental figure favourable to audiences, the Eastern ideology is negatively constructed. Within the final scenes to prove Jafars difference and lack of morals Jafar is seen raising his hand to hit female protagonist Jasmine, an act condemned by many Western cultures. This act suggests the Easts lack of respect of women, and suggests an inferior and weak identity. In the film Aladdin the Western and Eastern characters do not only carry different ideologies but distinctively different appearances. Within the film the evil antagonist Jafar and henchmen Gazeem both carry the stereotypical Eastern appearance. The characters are both depicted as having darker skin, large noses and beards, and headdress which has become a characteristic associated with Middle Eastern appearance. These distinctive features as well as thick middle eastern accent become a signifier for the antagonists within the film. The characters such as the police and the man in the market place which threaten protagonists Aladdin and Jasmine both carry these characteristics. Within the film although the protagonists Aladdin and Jasmine are both intended to be of Eastern appearance they both carry American accents, and are lighter skinned than their Eastern counterparts. These characteristics allow the Western audience to accept these characters although they are also Eastern. Osuri suggests that whiteness emerges as a way of identifying groups of people associated with superiority (Osuri, 2008, p.199). What this means in terms of the film Aladdin is that the characters whiteness allows the audience to recognise subconsciously the superiority of these characters. This in turn positions these characters as the heroes and their whiteness allows the audience to support Aladdin and Jasmine, although they are also paradoxically Eastern. The gendered body also comes in to question when analysing the Oriental figure. As Pugliese suggests Orientalist discourses invariably represent the Orient as phallocentrically feminine contrasting the masculine West (2008, p.209). In Aladdin the oriental antagonist Jafar carries feminine attributes such as thin wrists, and it can be suggested his mannerisms carry that of a female. His use of large hand gestures is seen as inherently female, and his possession of jewellery carries female connotations. This characterising of the feminine oriental is intended to show the inferiority and weakness of the East in contrast to the masculine West. The masculine West is represented through the protagonist character of Aladdin, who contrasts the thin feminine oriental Jafar as the strong, muscular masculine West bounding through the streets of Agrabah. It should also be noted that throughout the film whilst all other males are seen wearing pants, Jafar the main Eastern antagonist is pictured wearing a long dress robe. The Middle Eastern appearance is much different from that of Western culture, and with Western Cultures very limited understanding of Middle Eastern culture the attempt at putting Jafar in a dress can be seen as a way of emasculating him as a male character. The emasculation of the male character also addresses his sexuality, and in the case of the oriental figure sexuality has always haunted its figuration. When examining the oriental figure, the sexualising of the oriental male accompanies its configuration. The Islamic male is displayed as the sexual deviant, indulging in a perverse form of sexual behaviour. In the film Aladdin the movies antagonist Jafar encompasses the characteristics of the sexualised oriental in the scene where he captures the female protagonist Jasmine. In this scene Jafar has the character Jasmine chained up, restricted in her movements. Her attire has now changed from her usual blue outfit to red, which can be seen as a symbol of Jafars ownership due to his trademark red attire throughout the movie. The movie also suggests Jafars sexual intent with Jasmine through scenes displayed at the beginning of the movie. Though subtle, Jasmines red outfit matches that of the suggested prostitutes which swoon over protagonist Aladdin as he bounds through the market place in his opening scene. By placing Jasmine in the same outfit the film suggests Jafars sexual intent, and the confinement from her chains suggests Jafar intends on keeping her as a sexual slave. This representation of the sexually frustrated oriental Jafar perpetuates the Western perspective that all Islamic men indulge in a perverse sexuality. As Puar and Rai suggest we often believe of the sexually frustrated Muslim men who are promised the heavenly reward of sixtyor even seventy virgins (2002, p.126). This representation of the sexualised oriental East perpetuates the difference and otherness which the West attempts to construct between East and West. The character Aladdin is representative of the Wests ideology of sexuality, and further constructs the idea of good Western sexuality, and evil East sexuality. In the opening scenes we see the masculine Aladdin running through the town of Agrabah being chased by the buffoonish Arab police. As he is doing so the audience is displayed a scene in which women are seen swooning over the young protagonist. Aladdin is seen talking to young women, as well as older women as he appears to effortlessly charm them with his Western charisma. Women are seen to be attracted to the analogy of the young Western male, initiating conversation in an attempt to be seen by him. This contrasts the Eastern Oriental male who is displays a perverse sexuality and must capture his female audience to gain attention. In conclusion when analysing the film Aladdin we are able to see how Orientalism affects the construction, and the reading of the film. While the film may first encompass the ideology of the rags to riches story, we are able to see that in order to further the Western protagonists story it must distort the Easts. This essay has displayed how Western culture enforces a constructed idea upon Eastern culture through constructing Western concepts of Eastern ideologies, physical appearance of the East and the sexualising of the oriental figure. These constructed ideas work to enforce the inferior East and the powerful West and create a cultural and racial hierarchy which works to promote the Wests cultural ideas.

Ethics, Morality, and Legality Essay

Ethics are defined as individual perceptions of what is right or wrong, good or bad based on an individuals morals and values and also based on social values. Too often bribery is mistaken for lobbying. Bribery is illegal and short-term while lobbying is legal and a more permanent solution. There exists certain loopholes in law that allow for bribery to take place in the name of lobbying as was the case for the Winter Olympics Scandal where Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC) members gave gifts to International Olympic Committee (IOC) officials in a bid to influence them to pick salt lake city as the venue for the winter Olympics. Punishment for violating ethical and legal codes should be punitive as well as rehabilitative. However reforms should not be limited to the affected person to prevent future occurrences. Ethics, Morality, and Legality Bribery and lobbying are two phenomena that are very often misinterpreted such that it easy to confuse bribery for lobbying. According to the Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary, lobbying is â€Å"to promote, as a project, or secure the passage of, as legislation, by influencing public officials† (lobbying, n. d. ). Bribery on the other hand is regarded as illegal, but there has been a great debate as to whether bribery should be considered as unethical or illegal. However, most scholars and business people regard bribery as a phenomenon that ought to be regarded as unethical. There is a difference between these two phenomena that should be explored. Harstard and Svensson, argues that through lobbying firms can be able to change the rules to their advantage (Harstard and Svensson, 2005). As an option the firm may prefer to offer a bureaucrat a bribe so that he may bend the rules for them so that they may avoid the cost of complying. While lobbying results in a change, a bribe only bends the rules. However while a change of rules is more permanent the bureaucrat does not commit to not asking for a bribe in future. Based on a simple growth model, firms tend to prefer to bribe when the expected development is low but prefer to lobby when the expected development is high (Harstard and Svensson, 2005). The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (15 U. S. C. sec. 78) stipulates that it is illegal for US firms to give bribes locally or internationally. The act defines a bribe as an illegal payment meant to influence or sway an official to award or maintain a business activity. So there has to be possible profit from any venture for which a firm allegedly bribes in order for it qualify as a bribe. In the case of alleged bribery by members of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC) to the members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to select Salt Lake City as the 2002 Winter Olympics’ venue the committee could have defended themselves in the following way: the committee could have argued that while it is illegal to give bribes, it was not illegal to give gifts and in fact the IOC rules provided for gift offering so long as the value of the gifts did not exceed 150 dollars. Ethics are defined as the beliefs about what is right or wrong, good and bad and is based on an individual’s values and morals and how the behavior is perceived by society. Legal principles are derived from the society’s or a firm’s ethical principles. Since ethical and legal principles are what drive firms and societies in general, they are therefore important. Violation of ethical and legal principles should be punishable by legal sanctions such as imprisonment (Rawl, 1994). The former Volkswagen personnel director Klaus Volkert who sentenced to two years in prison for involvement in a bribery scandal that financed prostitutes and exotic holidays for union officials in order to get their support in management plans. However punishment should not be the only motive behind legal sanctions, the authorities should also aim at rehabilitating the affected person (Punishment, 2003). The remedies should not be limited to punishment of the affected employee rather there should be reforms in the entire organization in order to avert future scandals and to create a better business culture. Ethics drive organizations and societies. Each organization has its own code of ethics which must be followed by its personnel. Often bribery is mistaken for lobbying and might be used by organizations in a bid to achieve its goals. However bribery is illegal and goes against ethics and law. Those who engage in bribery should be punished. References Harstad, B. , Svensson, J. (2005). Bribe or Lobby: It’s a Matter of Development. Retrieved July 18 2010, from, http://www. kellogg. northwestern. edu/base/papers/harstad. pdf Lobbying. (n. d. ) Merriam Webster Dictionary. Retrieved July 18 2010, from, http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/lobbying Punishment. (2003). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved July 18 2010, from, http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/punishment/ Rawls, J. (1994). Punishment. Retrieved July 18 2010, from, http://ethics. sandiego. edu/Applied/deathpenalty/Rawls. html

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The Effects Of Eating Disorders On Children And Young...

â€Å"35-57% of adolescent girls engage in crash dieting, fasting, self-induced vomiting, diet pills, or laxatives.† (nationaleatingdisorders.org). Eating disorders are an exceedingly serious illness that anyone can suffer from, and can lead to death. Most of the time, when someone has an eating disorder, they show at least some of the common signs and symptoms. Eating disorders are an extremely serious illness that can affect anyone, no matter what gender, race, or age. However, most commonly about 90% of the people that suffer from eating disorders are teens and young adult females (Cooperman 3). There are many different reasons that people can develop an eating disorder. Triggers can range from social factors to biological and psychological factors. Some of the common social factors that contribute to developing an eating disorder include bullying at school or work for being overweight, peer pressure to be skinny and have a â€Å"perfect† body, and the media giving people the idea of what everyone should look like in order to be rich, popular, and famous. Some of the common biological factors are gender, genetics, family background, and existing disorders such as anxiety or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Gender shows that females typically care more about their body appearance than males, which causes them to be more prone to developing an eating disorder. Approximately 85-95% of people that have anorexia or bulimia are female and 65% of people with binge-eating disorderShow MoreRelatedEating Disorders in Adolescents1468 Words   |  6 PagesEating is a basic survival behavior. 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The Barb ie doll, introduced by Mattel, Inc. in 1959, can easily be considered the most popular doll in the world with 99% of 3 to 10 year olds owning at least one Barbie doll, and an average of eight Barbie dolls each just in the United States (Rogers, 1999). Barbie has received extensive criticism over the years for her ultrathin and highly unattainable body proportions. A majority of the relevant literature has focused on the influence of body ideals on adults, and not enoughRead MoreEssay about Anorexia1309 Words   |  6 Pages It seems today that eating disorders are on the rise. While this may be true, the numbers may appear to grow only because more cases are being brought out into the open. The purpose of this paper is to discuss eating disorders and prove the these disease, specifically Anorexia Nervosa, continue to plague of women due to psychological and environmental factors along with pressure from the media. The term â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa† is misleading. 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Alfred Hitchcock’s Vertigo Essay - 2527 Words

Alfred Hitchcock is arguably the greatest director of all time. Many of his films are considered standards of American cinema and inspired many of today’s directors. Even though Hitchcock is known as timeless director, he had an understanding of philosophy that was beyond his time. Hitchcock had a brilliant perception as to how the mind works and human reaction. Hitchcock’s understanding of philosophy can be seen in his film Vertigo and illustrates how many theories can be debilitating in everyday life. Into the Mind of Freud through the Mind of Hitchcock One of the philosophies that Hitchcock tackles is that of Sigmund Freud. Freud is known for psychoanalysis and his interpretation of dreams. Specifically, Freud’s theories can be seen†¦show more content†¦Though he is tricked, he believes that due to his vertigo he lets her die which could represent how he was hesitant to commit to her. Moreover, it is Scottie’s fear of heights that makes him lose the women that he loves. Through this theory, along with Freud’s, Hitchcock better shows the fear of commitment in men. This shows a deeper understanding than that of many, during this era as when the movie was filmed (1958) and the nuclear family was evident. Men and women were supposed to be married and not have any feelings for anyone outside their marriage. Freud has also touched upon the melancholy of losing a loved one. Freud’s theory is that loss and melancholy is what can lead to madness. This trait is also seen in Scottie’s reaction to the believed death of Madeleine. Scottie goes mad and has to be institutionalized. When he is released he finds the Madeleine â€Å"look alike† in Judy and develops a deep obsession. Heather Holf who wrote Hitchcock’s Vertigo and the Tragic Sublime says: Judy is fetishised into Madeleine as the lost object and, in the process, she is made the object of inevitable disappointment. Scotty can never be satisfied with the substitutive object and Judy must become the object of his revulsion. Scottie by trying to transform Judy into another person shows how powerful the melancholy of loss can be on the psyche of some. Hitchcock shows a beautiful understanding of this particular madness in Scottie.Show MoreRelatedThe Master Of Suspense And Alfred Hitchcock1389 Words   |  6 Pagesall have two attributes in common; the tactful use of suspense and Alfred Hitchcock. Each person in the list above has, at one point, named Alfred Hitchcock as an influence for their works (IMDb). Hitchcock has been known as, â€Å"the master of suspense,† throughout his career and it shows, not only in the movies that he directed personally, but in the movies of the other directors and producers who aspire to compare to him. Hitchcock’s auteur, or reoccurring themes within movies that can be traced backRead MoreAlfred Hitchcock s Psychological Pressure, Mystery, And Wit1430 Words   |  6 PagesAlfred Hitchcock is known as one of the greatest directors in the history of cinema. H itchcock directed over fifty films, many of which remain popular to this day, including his stunning works Vertigo, North by Northwest, The Man Who Knew Too Much, and Psycho. Hitchcock’s use of suspense, psychological pressure, mystery, and wit intrigued the audiences of his day as well as audiences of the 21st century. These elements of Hitchcock’s films have also inspired the genre of horror films that many knowRead MoreComparative Analysis Of Vertigo, North By Northwest And Notorious By Alfred Hitchcock1348 Words   |  6 PagesComparative Analysis of Vertigo, North by Northwest and Notorious by Alfred Hitchcock The British master of suspense, Alfred Hitchcock, made the cinematographic history by the unique auteur approach. His own vision of the story, uncommon manner of shooting, and challenging ideas formed his style and made him recognizable. The genius of the 50’s and 60’s, he provided the rich legacy for the future generations and set the pace for the directors all over the world. This paper is going to trace theRead MoreEssay on Male Gaze in Vertigo1092 Words   |  5 PagesSection I Images of Women in Film Dr. Judith Lancioni 07, February 2012 Male Gaze in Vertigo Several film theorists have used a variety of tactics and view points to analyze feature films since their inception. One of the most prominent theorists of those that analyze films from a feminist perspective is Laura Mulvey. Mulvey is famous for her essay â€Å"Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,† which presents an array of theories involving the treatment of women in films. Arguably the mostRead MoreAlfred Hitchcock Comparison Paper1511 Words   |  7 Pagesdecided to compare two Hitchcock films. 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Evolution of the Immune System Free Essays

John Frelinger Dr. Travis Organic Evolution 30 April 2012 Evolution of the Immune System Animals are constantly bombarded by an immensely varied array of disease causing pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and other parasites. The number of microbes living in the human body outnumber the actual human cells by a factor of 10, and for every single species of animal and plant on Earth, there are viruses that infect them. We will write a custom essay sample on Evolution of the Immune System or any similar topic only for you Order Now With the unrelenting threat of disease-causing pathogens all around us, and even within us, how can the constantly vulnerable organisms defend themselves? Evolution has provided an answer to this problem—the immune system. The immune system is a vastly complex orchestra of cells working together to help eliminate potentially harmful pathogens from the body. Some form of host defense is found in every multicellular organism, however there are myriad variations in the immune systems of different organisms. Vertebrates have evolved an acquired immune response, in which a specific immune system is activated to clear an infection that is initially controlled by a non-specific (innate) immune response. This highly adaptable system is important to the survival of vertebrate species. Surprisingly, however, 90% of animals (invertebrates) do not have this kind of response. Despite lacking a seemingly critical adaptation, invertebrates continue to survive and reproduce. Why does it appear necessary for vertebrates to have an acquired response in order to survive, but the more numerous invertebrate species do not? Research indicates that there is an evolutionary lineage of the immune system that stems from the split of invertebrates and vertebrates. Innate immunity, which is found in all animals, is assumed to be at the beginning of this evolutionary tree. After the diversification of species (vertebrates branching from invertebrates), mechanisms of immunity also diverged. In this paper I will first discuss the function of the innate immune system because of its older evolutionary history, followed by the adaptive immune response that evolved later in vertebrate lineages. I will then conclude by placing the development of the innate and adaptive immune system in an evolutionary context. Innate immunity is the first line of defense for an organism and is made up of elements that protect the organism from pathogens. Anatomical aspects such as skin act as an impermeable barrier to infectious pathogens. Chemical and biological factors, including anti-microbial peptides like defensins, are also used to inhibit bacterial growth and prevent colonization. Another immunological factor of the innate immune system are phagocytic cells (macrophages), which are cells that engulf and eliminate foreign pathogens. These cells operate using a variety of different and generalized receptors that recognize a broad range of molecular patterns expressed by pathogens that initiate phagocytosis. One such family of receptors, known as Toll-like Receptors, recognizes common pathogen elements such as bacterial wall components or viral DNA sequences. This component is found in virtually every multicellular organism, ranging from sponges to humans (Muller and Muller 2003). Plants also express proteins that are very similar to toll-like receptors, indicating that this aspect of the innate immune system predates the divergence of plants and animals. The innate immune system is so valuable to an organism’s survival because it is always present and in many instances can prevent pathogen entry or replication. This, in turn, prevents a harmful infection from ever occurring inside the host. Although invertebrates do not have the acquired immune response, recent research has shown that their innate response is more complex than previously thought. Insects can activate their immune systems to remain in a higher state in order to prepare for a pathogen invasion. During bedbug mating, females are frequently injured in the process because males will stab a female to inject his sperm, infecting her with bacteria and exposing her to other potential infections. In response, females have evolved ways to enhance their immune system prior to mating in anticipation of pathogen invasion (Morrow and Arnqvist 2003). Bumblebees are capable of maintaining a heightened immune system in response to a prior pathogen invasion to aid in the prevention of future infections. Immunity such as this has been shown to pass down vertically to offspring, therefore increasing their fitness (Tyler et al. 006). Slugs have also evolved an interesting alternative response in the form of increased mutation rates of certain immune cell receptors, which allows their immune system to adapt to many foreign elements (Litman and Cooper 2007). While it is inherently different from the acquired immune response, this sensitive management of immune function was previously thought to be reserved as a characteristic of vertebrates and the adaptive immune response. As vertebrates began to diverge and evolve from invertebrates, so too did the immune system. The new adaptive branch of the immune system originally conferred a new selective advantage for vertebrates because of its specificity and immense flexibility in recognizing new pathogens. The clonal selection theory, in which each lymphocyte clonally expresses a specific antigen receptor, can help explain how the immune system can express an extremely wide range of potential receptors capable of recognizing new pathogens. Lymphocytes are undifferentiated cells that ultimately become B-cells (Bone Marrow) or T-cells (Thymus) depending on where they migrate. B-cells possess a uniquely structured immunoglobulin molecule (antibodies exposed on outer surface) that recognizes and binds to a specific molecular counterpart. When a foreign antigen is bound to the antibody, it stimulates the replication of that specific B-cell with the aid of Helper T-cells, which enhance B-cell maturation. This process results in the clonal expansion of cells that recognize the original antigen and subsequent production of antibodies that help in the eradication of the pathogen. An important point of this process is that the pathogens select which lymphocytes expand. It also results in memory B-cells and T-cells that constitute a persistent immune memory for a particular antigen. This expanded pool of memory cells is activated upon a second exposure to the same pathogen, resulting in a much more rapid immune response to clear infection. Other types of T-cells are also produced during this process. For example, cytotoxic T-cells target and kill virally infected cells, while suppressor or regulatory T-cells are activated when the infectious pathogens are eliminated and signal the immune system to subside. Cells such as these also experience selective pressures–ones that react to self-tissue (and harm the host) would be selected against, while those that recognize pathogens would survive and replicate. The clonal selection theory addresses many aspects of vertebrate immunity, however, it does not explain all of the mysteries behind the variety of antibody generation. The sheer number of antibodies that can be produced and the finding that the acquired immune response can generate antibodies to manmade molecules that are not present in nature led scientists to explore how such diversity is generated. Research done by Susumu Tonegawa in the 1970’s indicated that B-cells have the ability to produce a huge number of antibodies due to a gene rearrangement process. B cells originally have many sets of gene segments (Variable, Diverse, and Joining) and over the course of its maturation reduce these segments to one of each type for the production of the antibody heavy chain. A similar process of gene rearrangement is involved for the production of the antibody light chain. The light chain and heavy chain proteins then assemble to form the complete antibody molecule that can specifically bind to an antigen. Two genes that are critical for this process to work are RAG1 and RAG2. These genes are known as recombination-activating genes and distinguish the vertebrate immune system from other lineages. These genes are critical to the process because they act as the excision and joining molecules that cut and knit back together the individual VDJ segments that make up the antibody. This results in the huge potential of diverse antibodies that can be produced—hundreds of millions of possible antibody types generated from a much smaller number of gene segments that can react with virtually any antigen. This sophisticated process may have originally been introduced by a mobile genetic element known as transposons. These transposable elements have the ability to excise themselves from one DNA sequence and incorporate themselves into another, very similar to the RAG1 and RAG2 gene functions. After the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates, a viral infection of the jawed lineage’s gametes may have introduced a transposon into their genome. (Thompson 1995). This may have provided the raw materials necessary to facilitate the development of adaptive immunity. The acquired response appears to have evolved from a single lineage because all vertebrates (excluding jawless fish) retain this RAG-mediated gene rearrangement system. The specificity of this kind of response may have been selected for because of its ability to recognize a diverse number of pathogens, but also because it could conserve more energy resources compared to the generalized defense of the innate response. The adaptive immune response is structured in such a way that it can respond to an almost infinite number of pathogens, while utilizing a relatively limited number of genes. Figure 1 illustrates a potential phylogeny based on some immune system adaptations previously discussed. Figure 1 (Reproduced from Litman and Cooper 2007). Although the vertebrate immune system is extremely adaptable to many potential threats, it is far from perfect. Epidemics such as the Bubonic Plague or the 1918 influenza killed millions of people. Similarly, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they also introduced pathogens that were devastating to the indigenous people. One of the major limitations of the acquired immune response is that it takes a relatively long time to respond after the initial exposure in order to be effective. This time is required because the lymphocytes must clonally expand before a pathogen can be eliminated. For example, in the case of the Native Americans, when they were exposed to the new pathogens, the infections spread to a portion of the population that was large enough to leave them unable to forage for food or to tend to the sick. As a result, it nearly wiped out the entire civilization. This limitation is significant as illustrated by these and many other historical epidemics. These difficulties have led scientists to think more fully about the effectiveness of the vertebrate immune system. If the immune system has the potential to combat virtually any conceivable threat, why then can’t it always eliminate any potentially harmful pathogen? We also look to immune hypersensitivity and autoimmunity as potential drawbacks of the immune system, indicating further imperfections of the adaptation. When the immune system mistakenly targets self-tissue, it results in serious consequences for the organism. Concepts in evolutionary biology might help address these issues. In this context the immune system does not have to be inherently perfect by design because only some individuals of a population need to survive and reproduce for that lineage to continue. The variation introduced by the immune system generates the diversity necessary for a population to adapt to changing environmental pressures. As others have suggested, a zebra doesn’t have to outrun the lion, just the slowest member of the herd (Hedrick 2004). The immune system is subjected to the same constraints as other characteristics in regards to natural selection. In this case even if a trait is not optimal, but helps the organism survive and reproduce, it will be selected for, regardless of any deleterious effects experienced post-reproduction. Many, but not all immunologists, believe the development of the adaptive immune system with gene rearrangement was a critical advance. It has been proposed that the development of the adaptive immune system was the â€Å"Big Bang† for the evolution of immune system (Travis 2009). This development might have also enabled the rapid expansion of vertebrates. Moreover, the idea that the adaptive immune system can generate receptors for molecules that are not yet present, makes it extremely flexible and has been called â€Å"forward thinking† (Travis 2009). Thus, while the immune system does not anticipate every change in organisms it is ready for them by constructing a large repertoire of antigen specific receptors, which confers a big selective advantage. Others have suggested the adaptive immune system conserves resources, and thus is better than the innate system. In contrast, as noted earlier, invertebrates lack a fully functional adaptive immune system and are very successful. Moreover, others have argued that even if the immune system was an advantage, it was only temporary and short lived (Hedrick 2004). Another relevant issue deals with the concept of parasite and host co-evolution. This constant struggle is exemplified by a quote from Lewis Carroll’s â€Å"Through the Looking Glass†, â€Å"it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place†. This concept, originally introduced by Leigh Van Valen, has been termed the Red Queen hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, an improvement in fitness for one species will lead to a selective advantage for that species. However, since species are often coevolving with one another, improvement in one species implies that it gains a competitive advantage over the other species, and thus has the potential to outcompete for shared resources. This means that fitness increase in one evolutionary system will tend to lead to fitness decrease in another system. The only way that a competing species can maintain its relative fitness is to improve on its own design. Although this theory was used to help explain the extinction of species and the evolution of sexual reproduction, it has been applied to many aspects of predator prey relationships including the development of the immune system. Because animals are constantly attacked by fast-adapting parasites, the host immune system cannot possibly gain an advantage over them. The evolution of the immune system is caused by the small advantages conferred as a result of variation in the recognition of pathogens. As suggested by Steven Hedrick, â€Å"by selecting for more elusive parasites, the immune system is ultimately the cause of its own necessity† (Hedrick 2004). Thus paradoxically, the immune system, since it places a strong selective pressure on pathogens and parasites, ultimately has become essential for vertebrates to survive. By placing selective pressure on parasites that can evolve much more rapidly than animals (due to their higher reproductive/mutation rate), it results in parasites that are increasingly more effective at infecting hosts of that species. In terms of the immune system, one strategy that parasites have developed is a means of altering their own antigens to become unrecognizable. In this way they escape the adaptive immune system by altering their structure. For example, trypanosomes can switch the major target antigen for antibodies, which they use as a strategy to extend the amount of time they reside in the host. This results in a more contagious host that will increase the spread of pathogens to new hosts (Stockdale et al. 2008). Similarly, because the HIV polymerase is very error prone with no proof reading mechanism, many mutations arise in the HIV proteins during its infection. While the adaptive immune system can make neutralizing antibodies, new variants arise that can no longer be recognized by the antibodies. These new variants have a selective advantage and escape, and thus the adaptive immune system  is always lagging behind. In terms of the host immune response, there is also an extremely high level  of polymorphism of major histocompatibility genes, which enable the population to respond to a wider array of antigens using T-cells. The benefit of this heterozygosity is that it allows the individual to respond to a wider variety of antigens. Moreover this diversity helps ensure that even though some individuals may perish, the particular pathogen will not be able to eliminate the entire population. Some infectious agents have even taken it a step further and evolved ways to utilize the host immune system to increase their own fitness. For example, infections that result in pus filled cysts can be used to carry parasitic progeny and spread to new hosts when they burst. Even though this may help the host clear an infection, the pathogen can use this to increase its own fitness and infect more individuals. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) utilizes the host immune system by initially infecting macrophages, and subsequently T-cells, which the virus uses as a reservoir for reproduction and as a means to spread to many different tissues in the body (Orenstein 2001). It also serves the virus to target immune cells for infection because crippling the host immune response akes it easier for the virus to spread throughout the body and eventually to new hosts (due to the higher viral load). In this light, it is possible that invertebrates did not evolve the adaptive immune response because they may have never needed it. By lacking the ability to develop a â€Å"memory† for a particular pathogen, those pathogens did not evolve anti-immune mechanisms to counter the host immune response. An immune memory could lead to more devious pathogens and resu lt in a more harmful infection in the future. This could have been a better strategy for invertebrates as it may have prevented the co-evolution of more virulent pathogens (Hedrick 2004). The immune system has a long evolutionary history in multicellular organisms. The innate immune system is a critical adaptation that helped these organisms survive the onslaught of parasites and pathogens. Vertebrates possess an adaptive immune response that allowed for the recognition of an almost infinite number of pathogenic antigens, however, it appears to have become a one-way road with the coevolution of pathogens. Once this adaptive system appeared in the vertebrate lineage, there was no going back. Because of the immense flexibility of the adaptive immune response, it places huge selective pressures on pathogens to constantly evolve new mechanisms of infecting hosts. Thus in the context of evolution, even with the incredible versatility of the adaptive immune system, it is likely there can not be an ultimate solution to infection by parasites only a new, perhaps unstable, equilibrium. Works Cited Hedrick, S. (2004). The Acquired Immune System: A Vantage from Beneath. Immunity 21, 607-615. Litman, G. and Cooper, M. (2007). Why Study the Evolution of Immunity? Nature Immunology 8, 547-548. Morrow, E. H. , and Arnqvist, G. (2003). Costly traumatic insemination and a female counter-adaptation in bed bugs. Proceedings of the Royal SocietyB: Biological Sciences. 270: 2377–2381 Muller, W. and Muller, I. (2003). Origin of the Metazoan Immune System: Identification of the Molecules and Their Functions in Sponge. Integrative and Comparative Biology 43, 281-292. Orenstein, J. (2001). The Macrophage in HIV Infection. Immunobiol. 204, 598- 602. Stockdale, C. , Swiderski, M. , Barry D. , and Richard McCulloch (2008). Antigenic Variation in Trypanosoma brucei: Joining the DOTs. PLoS Biol 6. Thompson, C. B. (1995). New insights into V(D)J recombination and its role in the evolution of the immune system. Immunity 3, 531–539. Travis, John. (2009). â€Å"On the Origin of the Immune System†. Sciencemag Vol. 329. Tyler, E. , Adams, S. , and Mallon, E. (2006), An Immune Response in the Bumblebee,Bombus terrestris leads to increased food consumption. BMC Physiology 6. How to cite Evolution of the Immune System, Papers

Case Study of Amazon In-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Case Study of Amazon In. Answer: Introduction: The main of this report is to analyze the situation for understanding the key issues. In this report strength and weakness is analyzed by performing SWOT and VIRO analysis. In this, the case the Amazon is selected for performing the analysis. The selected company is the worlds largest online retailer. The success of this company has encouraged others retailers that includes physical, brick and mortar retailers to get in to the online presence (Peppard Ward, 2016). The online retailer Amazon is compared to the Wal-Mart for its large presence in different countries and the aggressive strategy of pricing followed by them. However, the recent development and steep competition requires amazon has to rethink its business model of operating at close to zero margins. In addition to this, the company has not made sufficient profit as a result it is an impediment to the growth of the company Issues The most primary issue relating to the business strategy of Amazon are stated below: Amazon offers free shipping due to which the company is losing its profit margin in products of small amounts. The suggestion and recommendation of the market researchers and analysts have play a significant role in the decrease in profits. The product category range of amazon is very small. Swot Anaysis In the part below the SWOT Analysis regarding the business strategy of amazon has been discussed precisely. The SWOT analysis refer to the STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES and THREATS that a business is exposed to. Every aspects of SWOT analysis is discussed briefly. Strengths: The amazon is the largest online retailer it focuses mainly on the three prolonged strategies that are cost-leadership, differentiation and focus. By following the strategies the company thrives its gains from the course of its action and help its shareholders originates the values of the items from the company (Hill et al., 2014). The company is ahead of its competitors as it is easy to scale up and use the e-Commerce platform. The company is well ahead of its competitors because it mainly derives its competitive advantages from the leveraging IT. The company has superior logistics and distributor systems helps. This is helpful for the company to fulfil the need of the customers. It is one of the main reason for deriving competitive advantage from the competitors. Well established Amazon partner program for affiliates. Weaknesses: Free shipping being the part of amazon offers has risk of making losses and hence might not able to optimize on costs because of its strategy. The company has expanded very rapidly as a result the focus on the core competencies of the company of retailing books online has declined.As this can be a clever strategy from the perceptive of risk diversification (FrynasMellahi, 2015).However, it can be said that asamazon is moving away from its core competence it has to be conscious of preserving its strategic advantage. The main weakness of amazon is its business model of zero margin. This model has resulted in significant decline in the revenue of the company as the huge amount of revenues that has not been translated into profits that the company could utilize. Amazon sales depends upon the product category that varies in between a small range. Several provider for same product can arise aprice battle. Opportunities: As amazon facilitates the payment in online basis in a secured and trusted environment. This helps the business to to scale up by considering the concerns over online shopping as for the customers security and privacy are the primary concern.In addition to this, it also improves the margin of the company because it allows the company to take the advantage of using its own payment gateways (Hubbard et al., 2014). Amazon hasa great facility to capitalize its own manufactured product and by selling them rather than forwarding the sites of the third party product. As amazon increases its portfolios of diversified products than its competitors. This gives the company a position of strength and helps it to earn higher revenues. As amazon opens more sites in the emerging markets all around the globe that would certainly increase competition in the online retailing markets (Jenkins Williamson, 2015). Threats: As identity threats and hacking leads the consumers data exposed so it is a concerns for amazon to maintain its privacy. As its follows aggressive pricing strategies the company faces lawsuit from competitors in the retailing industryandpublishers. The company is focused in cost leaderships and has significantly reduced profit this is upset the competitors (Percy 2016). Thecompany from the local retailers that are more agile and nimble when compared to its strategy faces the significant competitions. VRIO Analysis: The VRIO framework acts a tool that utilize internally by firms that analyzed their resources and capabilities that determine their competitive advantage implications that are temporary competitive advantages ,sustainable advantages, competitive disadvantages or competitive party (Madsen Walker, 2015). There are four components of measures that contributes to the analysis are. Values, rare, imitability, exploitations. Values are generally defined as the resources or the capability valuable in enabling the firms ability to leverage opportunity that can be defend against threats. Rare shows that how easily acquired and readily available is the resources and capabilities to the industry and other firms. Imitability refers to the substitution that could be easily replaceable for the resources or capability. Exploitation refers as firms that are properly utilize the resources or the capability to its most ideal state or maximize its potential or optimizes its potential. Competitive disadvantages: The Amazons does not fails in its business as shown by VRIO shows. Most of their resources and different goods and products that were launched fetched them with profits and successes. Few items failed for amazon was Fire Smartphone. However, amazons generally astonished its customers with its innovations and creativity. As the failure will be labeled as competitive disadvantages for the business due to waste of money, efforts to produce an effective items that could not be valuable, rare or imitable. Competitive party: The Competitive party defines as the items that are valuable but are not rare and can be easily substituted with other goods. Amazon underestimate these items but these items itself generates revenues streams. No revenue is not acceptable compared to without revenues as in the long term it is not justifiable (Shin et al., 2014). As many retailers uses common features that amazon uses like Amazon Supply. The Amazons New York better than no revenues, even to the long term it is maintainable, video on demand, Brilliance Audio, European Warehouse etc. though these features are initiated by other competitors but if amazon were to suddenly loose these competencies then in term of short term, the business would have suffered significantly. Temporary advantage: The early acceptance and achievements of the retailers has been the crucial strength for Amazon. Moreover, into the Amazons present business model, this would quickly be incorporated. These possessions and competencies can be regarded as advantages of temporary nature as it continues to flourish as mainstream. It is only a matter of time previously follows suit. Partnerships with the giants industry like Sotheybys grow their business through amazon that definitely has competitive advantage over its market benefits. Items such as instant video, x-ray for the purpose of movies, its various acquirements of small retailers integrates with the large retailers through amazon, and it has advantages over it. Sustainable advantage: It is their innovation and those items that lead industry from where the most competitive advantages of Amazon Inc. comes from. Financial Analysis: Amazon Inc. is one of the leading online retailers in the US market. Since the last 10 years it can be observed from the past statistics and financial performances that the company has grown immensely (Parnell, 2013). The company has not only diversified its marketing strategies but also expanded its customer base through introduction of a huge variety of range of various categories of product. From the statement of financial analysis it can be observed that the total revenue have increased over the year. In 2006, the total revenue was $10,711 Million that increased to $107,006 Million in 2015. This also resulted in the significant increasing gross profits during the period. Gross profit for the year 2015 stands at $35,355 Million. Moreover it was also observed that the total equity have also increased over the years for the company. Referring to the stock price chart of Amazon Inc. it can be observed that since its inception, the stock price of the company has increased significantly over the year till 2015. But unfortunately in the year 2016 there is a clear sign of declination in the price of stocks. This is a crucial factor to be considered while assessing the financial health of the company and must be rectified immediately. Conclusion: From the above case study of Amazon Inc., it can be concluded that it is one of the leading online retailer not only in the US market but also internationally. The major strengths of Amazon being its three pronged strategic thrust. Moreover, through its huge range of product categories and consumer friendly policies it was able to attract a large pool of customers and grew up quite significantly over the year. From the financial statement it was observed that until 2015 the company was able to make substantial profit and it share price were also on a increasing trend. However, since the year 2016 there seems to be some serious issue in the internal management of the company that had a bad impact over its share price. Since 2016, the stock price of Amazon tends to decline which is needed to be investigated and corrective actions are required to be taken with immediate effect. References Frynas, J. G., Mellahi, K. (2015).Global strategic management. Oxford University Press, USA. Hill, C. W., Jones, G. R., Schilling, M. A. (2014).Strategic management: theory: an integrated approach. Cengage Learning. Hubbard, G., Rice, J., Galvin, P. (2014).Strategic management. Pearson Australia. Jenkins, W., Williamson, D. (2015).Strategic management and business analysis. Routledge. Kaynak, E., Mockler, R., Dologite, D. G. (2014).Multinational strategic management: an integrative entrepreneurial context-specific process. Routledge. Madsen, T. L., Walker, G. (2015).Modern competitive strategy. McGraw Hill. Parnell, J. A. (2013).Strategic management. Sage. Peppard, J., Ward, J. (2016).The strategic management of information systems: Building a digital strategy. John Wiley Sons. Percy, L. (2016).Strategic advertising management. Oxford University Press. Shin, J., Jo, M., Lee, J., Lee, D. (2014). Strategic management of cloud computing services: Focusing on consumer adoption behavior.IEEE transactions on engineering management,61(3), 419-427.